Having others in mind

Abstract

The ability to coordinate effectively is fundamental to human society. This thesis explored a key contributing factor to coordination: the tendency to have the presence, actions, needs, expectations, and other mental states of other social agents in mind. This can occur at different levels of awareness and may involve adjusting one’s behavior and mental states to accommodate others, even when such adjustments contradict one’s initial intentions.

Three studies were conducted. The first two examined various domains of Having Others in Mind in children and adults. Study 1a explored this tendency in 4- to 7-year-old UK children, using behavioral tasks assessing spontaneous sensitivity to others’ bodies, goals, needs, and expectations. Some children showed early signs of Having Others in Mind, and this increased with age. No significant interrelations were found among tasks. Study 1b extended the investigation to adults, assessing Cognitive and Affective Perspective Taking, Emotional Contagion, Obligation, Self-other Correspondence, Considerateness, and Guilt using a questionnaire. Here, interrelations were found among most of the subscales.

Chapter 3 focused on Having Others in Mind in the moral domain. Five-year-old Chinese and UK children evaluated individuals who failed to fulfill their obligations and the reasons they gave, in varying contexts. Chinese children showed a stronger preference for individuals who provided good reasons than UK children and expressed more normative force in their justifications. In short, young children showed a flexible interpretation of the strengths of obligations when obligation and cultural contexts vary.

Together, these studies point to a potential unifying tendency, Having Others in Mind, that begins in early childhood and spans across perceptual, action, affective, and moral domains. This thesis thus provides new insights into an everyday yet often unnoticed tendency that may play a crucial role in facilitating smooth and precise coordination between individuals: Having Others in Mind.

Date of Award	3 Dec 2025
Original language	English
Awarding Institution	University of St Andrews
Supervisor	Malinda Carpenter (Supervisor)