Theory-informed design of a location-based game for language learning

Despite the considerable educational potential of location-based games for language learning, their design often lacks a robust theoretical framework. In the absence of such a basis, it is difficult to systematically determine the specific design elements that facilitate meaningful target-language use. This study explores the applicability of the Funnel Model, a grounded theory framework organised around four dimensions: affective engagement, spatial immersion, role-play, and collaboration. Originally developed through an inductive study, the model is applied here as a deductive framework to inform the design and structure the analysis of a new location-based game for learning English, Gnomegress. Twenty advanced learners participated in the game, using the TaleBlazer mobile app to trigger video-based tasks at local landmarks. Qualitative data, comprising their written and audio reflections, were analysed using deductive thematic analysis to examine the extent to which the model's dimensions influenced active language use. This is understood here as the unscripted, task-oriented use of the target language required to complete the activity. Furthermore, fifty student-produced videos were reviewed to contextualise and supplement the findings. The results indicate that learner engagement and perceived target-language production appear to be associated with the degree of alignment between the model’s four dimensions. Higher levels of immersion and output were reported when tasks and the game narrative were coherently integrated with the physical location. Conversely, technical issues and weak spatial alignment occasionally interrupted the convergence of these dimensions, leading to a reduction in active language use. As a small-scale pilot study, the findings suggest that the Funnel Model offers a useful theoretical lens for the design and analysis of location-based games and activities for language learning. By using the model's four dimensions, designers may be able to refine future activities to better support target-language production in outdoor settings.