Problem-Solving in Tool-Using and Non-Tool-Using Animals

Physical problem-solving is defined as the use of a novel means to reach a goal when direct means are unavailable. Problem-solving in the wild (approximated by reports of innovation) correlates with relative forebrain size in mammals and birds. In the laboratory, various cognitive and noncognitive factors influence problem-solving, making species comparisons difficult, but there is no evidence that tool-users outperform nontool-users. Most work has focused on large-brained primates and corvids, which show fast and flexible problem-solving in many contexts. Several theories concerning the cognitive processes are involved, including roles for predispositions, learning, representation, causal knowledge, and inference.