Naval sonar induces an anaerobic swimming gait in beaked whales

L. M. Martín López; S. Isojunno; D. Cade; K. Colson; I. Paradinas; P. J. O. Miller; A. Fahlman; L. S. Hickmott; F. Visser

doi:10.1038/s41598-025-22490-5

Naval sonar induces an anaerobic swimming gait in beaked whales

L. M. Martín López^*, S. Isojunno, D. Cade, K. Colson, I. Paradinas, P. J. O. Miller, A. Fahlman, L. S. Hickmott, F. Visser

^*Corresponding author for this work

Research output: Contribution to journal › Article › peer-review

Abstract

Naval sonar can disrupt beaked whale diving behaviour, in some cases leading to lethal strandings. Diving disruption likely involves a physiological response, which remains poorly understood. Beaked whales may exceed their aerobic dive limit during long-duration deep-foraging dives and later in those dives, during ascent, initiate a unique strong gait (B-strokes), hypothesized to recruit anaerobic fast-twitch fibres. We compared the use of B-strokes during exposed and unexposed dives in four species of beaked whales. Contrasting the highly context-specific use of B-strokes during ascents from deep-dives in baseline conditions, during sonar exposure, B-strokes were used during descent and ascent phases of both deep and shallow dives. B-stroke onset occurred during all sonar exposure periods with levels above 100 dB re 1 µPa that lasted more than three minutes. The use of B-strokes during descent indicates these animals start using an oxygen-saving strategy earlier in exposed (16 ± 13 min) vs. unexposed dives (33 ± 14 min). This change in swimming gait when exposed to an external threat likely evolved to enable flexible escape responses from predators. However, if prolonged, such responses could lead to physiological changes that contribute to gas bubble formation and growth that could lead to animals stranding.

Original language	English
Article number	38686
Pages (from-to)	1-13
Number of pages	13
Journal	Scientific Reports
Volume	15
DOIs	https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-22490-5
Publication status	Published - 5 Nov 2025

Keywords

Beaked whales
Anthropogenic noise
Behavioural response
Naval sonar
Diving physiology
Marine mammals

UN SDGs

This output contributes to the following UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)

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Cite this

@article{8e108bda3d6e42b7bb41b5d3fb938db1,

title = "Naval sonar induces an anaerobic swimming gait in beaked whales",

abstract = "Naval sonar can disrupt beaked whale diving behaviour, in some cases leading to lethal strandings. Diving disruption likely involves a physiological response, which remains poorly understood. Beaked whales may exceed their aerobic dive limit during long-duration deep-foraging dives and later in those dives, during ascent, initiate a unique strong gait (B-strokes), hypothesized to recruit anaerobic fast-twitch fibres. We compared the use of B-strokes during exposed and unexposed dives in four species of beaked whales. Contrasting the highly context-specific use of B-strokes during ascents from deep-dives in baseline conditions, during sonar exposure, B-strokes were used during descent and ascent phases of both deep and shallow dives. B-stroke onset occurred during all sonar exposure periods with levels above 100 dB re 1 µPa that lasted more than three minutes. The use of B-strokes during descent indicates these animals start using an oxygen-saving strategy earlier in exposed (16 ± 13 min) vs. unexposed dives (33 ± 14 min). This change in swimming gait when exposed to an external threat likely evolved to enable flexible escape responses from predators. However, if prolonged, such responses could lead to physiological changes that contribute to gas bubble formation and growth that could lead to animals stranding.",

keywords = "Beaked whales, Anthropogenic noise, Behavioural response, Naval sonar, Diving physiology, Marine mammals",

author = "\{Mart{\'i}n L{\'o}pez\}, \{L. M.\} and S. Isojunno and D. Cade and K. Colson and I. Paradinas and Miller, \{P. J. O.\} and A. Fahlman and Hickmott, \{L. S.\} and F. Visser",

note = "Data collection in The Bahamas was funded by the United States (U.S.) Office of Naval Research (www.onr.navy.mil) Grants N00014-07-10988, N00014-07-11023, N00014-08-10990, N00014-15-12553; the U.S. Strategic Environmental Research and Development Program (www.serdp.org) Grant SI-1539, the Environmental Readiness Division of the U.S. Navy (http://www.navy.mil/local/n45/), the U.S. Chief of Naval Operations Submarine Warfare Division (Undersea Surveillance), the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (National Marine Fisheries Service, Office of Science and Technology) (http://www.st.nmfs.noaa.gov/), U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Ocean Acoustics Program (http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/acoustics/), and the Joint Industry Program on Sound and Marine Life of the International Association of Oil and Gas Producers (www.soundandmarinelife.org). Data collection in the Canary Islands was funded by the Office of Naval Research, Strategic Environmental Research, Development Program (SERDP) under program CS-1188, the National Ocean Partnership Program, the Packard Foundation, and the National Oceanographic Partnership Program (NOPP), by a consortium consisting of the Canary Islands Government, the Spanish Ministry of Environment and the Spanish Ministry of Defence and by the European environmental funding LIFEINDEMARES program for the inventory and designation of the Natura 2000 network in marine areas of the Spanish territory, headed by Fundaci{\'o}n Biodiversidad, with additional support from the Cabildo Insular of El Hierro. Data collection in the Ligurian sea was funded by the National Oceanographic Partnership Program (NOPP). Data collection in Azores was funded by the Office of Naval Research Marine Mammal Biology Program, USA (ONR; grant numbers N00014-15-1-2341, N00014-17-1-2715, N00014-20-1-2702; program manager, M. Weise), the Dutch Research Council (NWO; Veni grant 016. Veni.181.086). Data collection in the Southern California Bight was funded by the US Navy Chief of Naval Operations, Environmental Readiness Program, the Naval Postgraduate School, and the National Research Council; the Office of Naval Research and the MASTS pooling initiative (Marine Alliance for Science and Technology for Scotland; supported by the Scottish Funding Council (grant reference HR09011) and contributing institutions). Data collection in Jan Mayen was funded by the US Office of Naval Research (ONR grants N00014-15-1-2533 and N00014-16-1-3059), the Norwegian Ministry of Defence, The Netherlands Ministry of Defence, the US Strategic Environmental Research and Development Program (SERDP award RC-2337), the French Ministry of Defence (DGA) and the MASTS pooling initiative (Marine Alliance for Science and Technology for Scotland; supported by the Scottish Funding Council (grant reference HR09011) and contributing institutions).",

year = "2025",

month = nov,

day = "5",

doi = "10.1038/s41598-025-22490-5",

language = "English",

volume = "15",

pages = "1--13",

journal = "Scientific Reports",

issn = "2045-2322",

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TY - JOUR

T1 - Naval sonar induces an anaerobic swimming gait in beaked whales

AU - Martín López, L. M.

AU - Isojunno, S.

AU - Cade, D.

AU - Colson, K.

AU - Paradinas, I.

AU - Miller, P. J. O.

AU - Fahlman, A.

AU - Hickmott, L. S.

AU - Visser, F.

N1 - Data collection in The Bahamas was funded by the United States (U.S.) Office of Naval Research (www.onr.navy.mil) Grants N00014-07-10988, N00014-07-11023, N00014-08-10990, N00014-15-12553; the U.S. Strategic Environmental Research and Development Program (www.serdp.org) Grant SI-1539, the Environmental Readiness Division of the U.S. Navy (http://www.navy.mil/local/n45/), the U.S. Chief of Naval Operations Submarine Warfare Division (Undersea Surveillance), the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (National Marine Fisheries Service, Office of Science and Technology) (http://www.st.nmfs.noaa.gov/), U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Ocean Acoustics Program (http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/acoustics/), and the Joint Industry Program on Sound and Marine Life of the International Association of Oil and Gas Producers (www.soundandmarinelife.org). Data collection in the Canary Islands was funded by the Office of Naval Research, Strategic Environmental Research, Development Program (SERDP) under program CS-1188, the National Ocean Partnership Program, the Packard Foundation, and the National Oceanographic Partnership Program (NOPP), by a consortium consisting of the Canary Islands Government, the Spanish Ministry of Environment and the Spanish Ministry of Defence and by the European environmental funding LIFEINDEMARES program for the inventory and designation of the Natura 2000 network in marine areas of the Spanish territory, headed by Fundación Biodiversidad, with additional support from the Cabildo Insular of El Hierro. Data collection in the Ligurian sea was funded by the National Oceanographic Partnership Program (NOPP). Data collection in Azores was funded by the Office of Naval Research Marine Mammal Biology Program, USA (ONR; grant numbers N00014-15-1-2341, N00014-17-1-2715, N00014-20-1-2702; program manager, M. Weise), the Dutch Research Council (NWO; Veni grant 016. Veni.181.086). Data collection in the Southern California Bight was funded by the US Navy Chief of Naval Operations, Environmental Readiness Program, the Naval Postgraduate School, and the National Research Council; the Office of Naval Research and the MASTS pooling initiative (Marine Alliance for Science and Technology for Scotland; supported by the Scottish Funding Council (grant reference HR09011) and contributing institutions). Data collection in Jan Mayen was funded by the US Office of Naval Research (ONR grants N00014-15-1-2533 and N00014-16-1-3059), the Norwegian Ministry of Defence, The Netherlands Ministry of Defence, the US Strategic Environmental Research and Development Program (SERDP award RC-2337), the French Ministry of Defence (DGA) and the MASTS pooling initiative (Marine Alliance for Science and Technology for Scotland; supported by the Scottish Funding Council (grant reference HR09011) and contributing institutions).

PY - 2025/11/5

Y1 - 2025/11/5

N2 - Naval sonar can disrupt beaked whale diving behaviour, in some cases leading to lethal strandings. Diving disruption likely involves a physiological response, which remains poorly understood. Beaked whales may exceed their aerobic dive limit during long-duration deep-foraging dives and later in those dives, during ascent, initiate a unique strong gait (B-strokes), hypothesized to recruit anaerobic fast-twitch fibres. We compared the use of B-strokes during exposed and unexposed dives in four species of beaked whales. Contrasting the highly context-specific use of B-strokes during ascents from deep-dives in baseline conditions, during sonar exposure, B-strokes were used during descent and ascent phases of both deep and shallow dives. B-stroke onset occurred during all sonar exposure periods with levels above 100 dB re 1 µPa that lasted more than three minutes. The use of B-strokes during descent indicates these animals start using an oxygen-saving strategy earlier in exposed (16 ± 13 min) vs. unexposed dives (33 ± 14 min). This change in swimming gait when exposed to an external threat likely evolved to enable flexible escape responses from predators. However, if prolonged, such responses could lead to physiological changes that contribute to gas bubble formation and growth that could lead to animals stranding.

AB - Naval sonar can disrupt beaked whale diving behaviour, in some cases leading to lethal strandings. Diving disruption likely involves a physiological response, which remains poorly understood. Beaked whales may exceed their aerobic dive limit during long-duration deep-foraging dives and later in those dives, during ascent, initiate a unique strong gait (B-strokes), hypothesized to recruit anaerobic fast-twitch fibres. We compared the use of B-strokes during exposed and unexposed dives in four species of beaked whales. Contrasting the highly context-specific use of B-strokes during ascents from deep-dives in baseline conditions, during sonar exposure, B-strokes were used during descent and ascent phases of both deep and shallow dives. B-stroke onset occurred during all sonar exposure periods with levels above 100 dB re 1 µPa that lasted more than three minutes. The use of B-strokes during descent indicates these animals start using an oxygen-saving strategy earlier in exposed (16 ± 13 min) vs. unexposed dives (33 ± 14 min). This change in swimming gait when exposed to an external threat likely evolved to enable flexible escape responses from predators. However, if prolonged, such responses could lead to physiological changes that contribute to gas bubble formation and growth that could lead to animals stranding.

KW - Beaked whales

KW - Anthropogenic noise

KW - Behavioural response

KW - Naval sonar

KW - Diving physiology

KW - Marine mammals

UR - https://www.scopus.com/pages/publications/105020993691

U2 - 10.1038/s41598-025-22490-5

DO - 10.1038/s41598-025-22490-5

M3 - Article

SN - 2045-2322

VL - 15

SP - 1

EP - 13

JO - Scientific Reports

JF - Scientific Reports

M1 - 38686

ER -

Naval sonar induces an anaerobic swimming gait in beaked whales

Abstract

Keywords

UN SDGs

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Patrick Miller: 3S3: Behavioural response studies of acoustically-sensitive species in Norway

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Naval sonar induces an anaerobic swimming gait in beaked whales

Abstract

Keywords

UN SDGs

Access to Document

Other files and links

Fingerprint

Projects

Patrick Miller: 3S3: Behavioural response studies of acoustically-sensitive species in Norway

Cite this