Imitation and inspiration in 'Roman' archery

Roman armies first experienced massed horse-archery during campaigns in the Levant during the 1st century BC. From then on, until the 5th century AD, Roman military archery was culturally dominated by the Mesopotamian-Iranian tradition. Not only did eastern archers dominate Roman formations of sagittarii, but oriental equipment forms permeated Roman usage. Roman armies evolved methods both to successfully counter eastern archer forces and to deploy archery to best advantage against western enemies. From the 4th century they came increasingly under Asiatic steppe nomad influence. This and northern European Iron Age archery traditions are also examined. Consummate Roman skills in archery came to be advertised most vividly on military gravestones. This whole process represents one of the clearest examples of Roman military imitation, but also of inspiration leading to development of a ‘Roman’ archery culture within the empire.